Abstract

Functionalization of thymol (Thy) on nanocarriers is a key step in achieving prolonged antimicrobial activity. This requires nanomaterials with uniform particle diameters and suitable thymol sorption. Herein, hollow carbon (HC) and SiO<inf>2</inf>-carbon core-shell (SiO<inf>2</inf>@C) were investigated due to their diverse morphologies and ease of surface modification. HC (14 ± 1 nm size) and SiO<inf>2</inf>@C (10 ± 1.5 nm size) were synthesized by the Stöber method before thymol was loaded by incipient wetness impregnation. Nanoparticle physicochemical properties were characterized by advanced techniques, including X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS). Adsorption energies of thymol on the carbon and SiO<inf>2</inf> surfaces were elucidated by density functional theory (DFT) simulations. Moreover, the in vitro thymol release profiles and antibacterial activity were evaluated. The experimental results indicated that the oxy-carbon surface species of HC led to longer thymol release profiles than the -OH group of SiO<inf>2</inf>@C. The DFT calculations revealed that the weaker physical interaction of thymol on HC was better for drug release than that on SiO<inf>2</inf>@C. Thus, a longer thymol release profile of HC with hollow structures showed better antibacterial performance against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus than that of SiO<inf>2</inf>@C with core-shell structures. This work confirms the important role of carbon morphology and specific functional groups in thymol release profiles for the further development of inhibition products.