Abstract

This study presents an Internet of Things (IoT)-assisted semi-open hydroponic system for cultivating Andrographis paniculata under tropical conditions, aiming to enhance biomass productivity, andrographolide (AG) yield, and production efficiency. IoT-assisted hydroponics, non-IoT hydroponics, and soil-based cultivation were compared in 10 m² greenhouses. The IoT system enabled real-time monitoring and adaptive regulation of temperature, relative humidity, light intensity, nutrient solution pH, and electrical conductivity (EC). IoT-assisted hydroponics achieved earlier harvest (≈90 days) and the highest fresh biomass yield (0.409 ± 0.014 kg m⁻²) while maintaining per-plant productivity (15.74 ± 0.54 g plant⁻¹) comparable to soil-based cultivation. Andrographolide concentration reached 25.58 ± 3.36 mg g⁻¹ DW (2.56% w/w), meeting pharmacopeial requirements. Owing to stable environmental regulation and tolerance to high planting density, the IoT system produced the highest areal AG productivity (209.5 mg m⁻²), representing a four- to tenfold increase over the other systems. Despite higher operational costs, IoT-assisted hydroponics achieved the lowest AG unit cost (≈6.77 USD g⁻¹). While most previous studies emphasize tissue-level AG concentration, system-level productivity and cost efficiency under realistic cultivation conditions remain insufficiently explored. Overall, IoT-enabled semi-open hydroponics provides a scalable and economically viable approach for medicinal plant production, bridging the gap between open-field cultivation and fully controlled plant factory systems.